UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


A  Progress  Report  upon  Soil  and  Climatic  Factors 
Influencing  the  Composition  of  Wheat 

By  G.  W.  SHAW  and  E.  H.  WALTERS 


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Pla^  Or  A  5oil    Lxcma/igl.    Lkplkimlht 

BULLETIN  No.  216 

(Berkeley,  Cal.,  June,  1911) 


W.    W.    SHANNON 


SACRAMENTO 

-      -      SUPERINTENDENT    OF    STATE    PRINTING 

1911 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF. 

E.  J.  Wickson,  M.A.,  Director  and  Horticulturist. 

E.  W.  Hilgard,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Chemist   (Emeritus). 

W.  A.  Setchell,  Ph.D.,  Botanist. 

Leroy  Anderson,  Ph.D.,  Dairy  Industry  and  Superintendent  University  Farm  Schools. 

M.  E.  Jaffa,  M.S.,  Nutrition  Expert,  in  charge  of  the  Poultry  Station. 

R.  H.  Loughridge,  Ph.D.,  Soil  Chemist  and  Physicist  (Emeritus). 

C.  W.  Woodworth,  M.S.,  Entomologist. 

Ralph  E.  Smith,  B.S.,  Plant  Pathologist  and  Superintendent  of  Southern  California 

Pathological  Laboratory  and  Experiment  Station. 
G.   W.   Shaw,  M.A.,   Ph.D.,   Experimental  Agronomist  and  Agricultural  Technologist, 

in  charge  of  Cereal  Stations. 

E.  W.  Major,  B.Agr.,  Animal  Industry,  Farm  Manager,  University  Farm,  Davis. 

F.  T.  Bioletti,  M.S.,  Viticulturist. 

B.  A.  Etcheverrt,  B.S.,  Irrigation  Expert. 

George  E.  Colby,  M.S.,  Chemist  (Fruits,  Waters,  and  Insecticides),  in  charge  of 
Chemical  Laboratory. 

H.  J.  Quatle,  A.B.,  Assistant  Entomologist,  Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 

W.  T.  Clarke,  B.S.,  Assistant  Horticulturist  and  Superintendent  of  University  Exten- 
sion in  Agriculture. 

H.  M.  Hall,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Botanist. 

C  M.  Haring,  D.V.M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian  and  Bacteriologist. 

John  S.  Burd,  B.S.,  Chemist,  in  charge  of  Fertilizer  Control. 

E.  B.  Babcock,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Education. 

W.  B.  Herms,  M.A.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

J.  H.  Norton,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist,  in  charge  of  Citrus  Experiment  Station,  River- 
side. 

W.  T.  Horne,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

J.  E.  Coit,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pomologist,  Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 

C.  B.  Lipman,  Ph.D.,  Soil  Chemist  and  Bacteriologist. 

R.  E.  Mansell,  Assistant  in  Horticulture,  in  charge  of  Central  Station  grounds. 

A.  J.  Gaumnitz,  M.S.,  Assistant  in  Cereal  Investigations,  University  Farm,  Davis. 

E.  H.  Hagemann,  Assistant  in  Dairying,  Davis. 

B.  S.  Brown,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  in  Horticulture,  University  Farm,  Davis. 

F.  D.  Hawk,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Industry. 

J.  I.  Thompson,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Industry,  Davis. 

R.   M.   Roberts,   B.S.A.,   Field  Assistant  in  Viticulture,   University  Farm,   Davis. 

J.  C.  Bridwell,  B.S.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

C.  H.  McCharles,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory. 
N.  D.  Ingham,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Sylviculture,  Santa  Monica. 

E.  H.  Smith,  M.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 
T.  F.  Hunt,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

C   O.   Smith,  M.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist,   Plant  Disease  Laboratory,   Whittier. 

F.  L.  Yeaw,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist,  Vacaville. 
F.  E.  Johnson,  B.L.,  M.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Laboratory. 
Charles  Fuchs,  Curator  Entomological  Museum. 

P.  L.  Hibbard,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Fertilizer  Control  Laboratory. 

L.   M.  Davis,  B.S.,   Assistant  in   Dairy   Husbandry,  University  Farm,   Davis. 

L    I  Bonnet,  LA.,  Assistant  in  Viticulture. 

s.  s.  Rogers,  B.S.,  Assistant     Plant  Pathologist,  Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 

B.  A.  Madson,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  in  Cereal  Laboratory. 

Walter  E.  Packard,  M.S.,  Field  Assistant,   Imperial  Valley  Investigation,  El  Centre 

M.  E.  Stover,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory. 

P.  L.  McCreary,  B.S.,  Laboratory  Assistant  in  Fertilizer  Control. 

E.  E.  Thomas,  B.S.,  Assistant  Chemist,  Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 

Anna  Hamilton,  Assistant  in  Entomology. 

Mrs.  V).  L.  Bunnell,  Secretary  to  Director. 

\\\    II.  Volck,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology,  Watsonville. 

B.    I>.  Morris,  B.S.,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology,  San  Jose. 

HUNTER,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology,  San  Mateo, 
.j.  c,  Roper,  Patron,  University  Forestry  Station,  Chico. 
J.  T.  BEAkss,  Foreman,  Kearney  Park  Station,  Fresno. 

Miller,  Foreman,  Forestry  Station,  Chico. 


A  PROGRESS  REPORT  UPON  SOIL  AND  CLIMATIC  FACTORS 
INFLUENCING  THE  COMPOSITION  OE  WHEAT. 


By  G.  W.  Shaw  and  E.  H.  Walters!* 

For  many  years  the  effect  of  environment  upon  the  composition  of 
grain  has  been  the  subject  of  much  study  by  numerous  investigators. 
The  results  of  these  investigations  have  been  quite  contradictory,  and 
have  resulted  in  a  very  wide  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  the  factors 
which  influence  the  gluten  content  of  wheat.  In  practically  all  of  these 
studies,  the  plan  has  been  to  transfer  the  seed  from  one  point  to  another 
and  grow  it  under  a  variety  of  conditions,  and  from  the  results  so 
obtained  attempt  to  draw  conclusions  as  to  the  influence  of  environment 
upon  the  composition  of  the  grain.  In  summarizing  the  reports  of 
previous  investigators  in  this  field  one  notices  that  no  experiments  have 
been  conducted  under  conditions  which  would  eliminate  all  the  varying 
factors,  with  the  exception  of  the  composition  of  the  soil  itself.  In  the 
experiments  here  reported,  wheat  from  the  same  seed  was  grown  under 
the  same  conditions  on  soils  of  widely  different  origin  put  under  the 
same  field  influences,  thus  establishing  the  condition  referred  to  above. 

Many  valuable  practical  results  have  been  obtained  from  a  study  of 
soil  fertility  in  connection  wTith  the  chemical  composition  of  the  crop. 
But  in  the  attempt  to  establish  a  relationship  between  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  soil  and  that  of  the  crop  grown  upon  it  many  diffi- 
culties arise.  Soils  contain  varying  amounts  of  the  elements  of  plant 
food.  In  one  soil  these  constituents  may  be  in  a  form  which  can  be 
readily  assimilated  by  plants,  while  in  another  soil  they  may  be  present 
in  sufficient  quantities,  but  not  in  accessible  forms.  The  utilization  of 
one  ingredient  by  a  plant  may  be  aided  or  retarded  by  the  presence  or 
absence  of  other  soil  ingredients.  For  example,  in  discussing  the  lime 
content  of  soils,  Hilgard1  shows  that  low  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid. 
nitrogen,  and  potash  in  the  soil  prove  adequate  in  the  presence  of  high 
amounts  of  lime.  The  physical  and  biological  conditions  of  the  soil,  and 
the  variations  in  climate  and  soil  moisture,  may  also  influence  the 
assimilation  of  the  plant  food  contained  in  the  soil.  With  such  com- 
plexities, the  attempt  to  draw  any  definite  conclusions  from  the  results 
of  a  single  investigation  would  be  to  depart  from  the  correct  scientific 
method. 

*  Note. — The  bibliography  of  this  paper  and  the  chemical  work  relating  to  the 
second  series  of  plats  was  done  by  Mr.  Walters  as  a  portion  of  his  work  for  masters 
degree.  The  work  relating  to  the  first  series  of  plats  was  done  by  the  regular  station 
officers. 

aHilgard's  "Soils,"  p.  365. 


550  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

This  study  is  considered  in  two  parts.  Part  one  is  historical,  and  an 
attempt  is  made  to  bring  together  some  of  the  most  important  results  of 
previous  investigations  already  published.  The  literature  devoted  to 
this  subject  is  voluminous,  and  this  paper  by  no  means  attempts  to 
quote  from  all  of  them.  The  writers  believe,  however,  that  it  fairly 
represents  the  work  relating  to  the  particular  phase  of  the  subject  dis- 
cussed herein.  Part  two  is  devoted  to  the  experimental  phase  of  the 
study,  the  exact  nature  of  which  will  be  discussed  in  its  proper  place. 

PREVIOUS  RESEARCHES. 

Plants  are  so  sensitive  to  a  change  of  environment  that  it  is  difficult 
to  say  which  of  the  environmental  factors  have  the  greatest  influence. 
Many  investigators  seem  to  think  that  the  climate  has  the  greatest  effect 
upon  the  composition  of  the  crop.  Others  believe  that  the  soil  has  the 
greatest  influence.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  true  varieties,  when 
grown  in  the  same  environment,  have  a  tendency  to  produce  a  like 
product  regardless  of  the  original  soil.2 

In  1882,  Richardson"  commenced  a  study  of  the  influence  of  environ- 
ment on  cereals,  which  consisted  in  growing  crops  from  seeds  of  the 
same  kind  and  of  known  composition  in  different  localities.  His  results 
show  that  seeds  of  different  varieties  of  wheat  when  grown  in  Colorado 
produced  a  crop  which  contained  a  higher  protein  and  a  lower  carbo- 
hydrate content  than  the  original  seed.  He  also  observed  that  the  same 
seed,  when  grown  in  California,  Oregon,  and  North  Carolina,  produced 
crops  with  a  lower  percentage  of  carbohydrates  than  the  original  seed. 
He  concluded  from  the  data  obtained  that  the  soil  played  the  most 
important  part  in  producing  these  changes. 

Wiley,4  in  an  article  discussing  the  work  of  Richardson  and  reporting 
the  work  of  later  experiments,  arrives  at  a  different  conclusion  and 
states  that  the  soil  has  the  least  effect  of  the  environmental  factors, 
provided,  of  course,  that  it  contains  the  proper  amounts  of  plant  food, 
but  that  the  length  of  the  growing  season  is  the  most  effective  factor. 

In  1884,  Lawes  and  Gilbert5  showed  that  a  wider  variation  occurred 
in  the  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  content  of  the  ash  of  wheat  with  the 
same  manure  in  different  seasons  than  under  three  very  different  con- 
ditions of  manuring.  This  point  is  brought  out  very  clearly  in  Table  I, 
which  is  taken  from  their  report. 

2LeClerc,  Bui.  128,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Indiana  Sta.  Bui.  61, 
p.  60. 

"Buls.  1,4,  and  9,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
'Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  1901,  p.  299. 
sJour.  Chem.  Soc..  London.  L884,  XLV,  p.  304. 


Bulletin  216]     FACTORS  INFLUENCING  WHEAT  COMPOSITION. 


551 


TABLE  I. 

Highest,  lowest,  and  mean  percentage  of  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  pure  ash  in 

sixteen  consecutive  seasons. 


Plot. 


Fertilizers. 


Per  cent  in  dry  matter  of  grain 
Highest. 


Lowest. 


Mean. 


2 

3 
10a 


2 

3 

10a 


Potash. 

Farmyard  manure 

Unmanured  

Ammonium  salts,  alone 

Phosphoric  acid 

Farmyard  manure  

Unmanured  

Ammonium  salts,  alone 


0.779 
0.838 
0.738 


1.110 
1.075 
1.003 


0.538 
0.601 
0.515 


0.965 
0.898 
0.718 


0.635 
0.662 

0.602 


1.044 
1.003 
0.854 


Considering  the  weight  per  bushel  as  the  single  factor  in  determining 
the  quality  of  the  crop,  the  same  authors  observed  that  the  best  crops 
are  associated  with  low  percentages  of  total  mineral  constituents  (ash) 
and  a  low  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  dry  substance.  Accordingly, 
grain  of  high  quality  is  associated  with  a  high  percentage  of  carbo- 
hydrates. In  every  case  the  lowest  weight  per  bushel  was  associated 
with  the  lowest  yield.    Table  II  expresses  some  of  their  results. 


TABLE   II. 


Maximum,  minimum,  and 

mean  yields  of  each  plot  during  sixteen  years  with 
centage  composition  of  the  crop. 

the  per- 

Percentage  composition  in  dry  matter  of  grain. 

Weight 

per 
bushel. 

Pounds 

grain 

per  acre. 

Plot. 

Ash.         Nitrogen. 

I 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Sul- 
phuric 
acid. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 

Potash. 

2 

2 

Mean 

63.8 
51.1 
57.4 

2068 
1120 
1967 

1.93 
2.20 
2.06 

1.58 
1.76 
1.96 

0.97 
1.03 
1.07 

.029 
.052 
.014 

.049 
.057 
.054 

.203 
.223 
.229 

.637 
.779 
.640 

3 

3 

Mean 

62.7 
45.9 
54.3 

1127 
359 

823 

1.95 
2.36 

2.08 

1.65 
2.09 
1.98 

1.00 
1.08 
1.04 

.013 

.057 
.029 

.052 
.073 
.058 

.212 
.243 
.217 

.628 
.838 
.670 

10a 

10a 

Mean 

62.6 

48.6 
53.7 

2587 

642 

1147 

1.56 
1.98 
1.91 

1.70 
2.43 
2.25 

0.72 

0.88 
0.90 

.037 
.049 
.039 

.060 
.074 
.068 

.175 
.185 
.205 

.537 
.709 
.632 

A  study  of  Table  II  will  show  that  in  every  case  the  ratio  of  nitrogen 
to  phosphoric  acid  is  greater  in  the  crop  of  minimum  yield,  viz.,  an 
increase  in  the  yield  is  associated  with  a  decrease  in  the  ratio  of  nitrogen 
to  phosphoric  acid.  In  the  crop  of  minimum  yield  the  percentage  of 
ash,  and  therefore  ash  constituents,  was  higher  than  in  the  largest  crop. 

The  results  of  grain  grown  on  plots  receiving  very  different  manures 
but  all  under  the  same  seasonal  conditions  are  expressed  in  the  following 
table : 


552 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

TABLFJ   III. 
Analysis   of  wheat  grown    on  plots  receiving   different   manures. 


Percentage  composition  of  dry  matter  in 

grain. 

Weight 

rounds 
dry 

Plot 

per 

matter 

Phos- 

Sul- 

bushel. 

per  acre. 

Ash. 

Nitrogen. 

phoric 
acid. 

phuric 
acid. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 

Potash. 

2 

60.6 

1963 

1.96 

1.80 

1.038 

.011 

.050 

.228 

.593 

3 

58.5 

836 

2.01 

1.85 

1.035 

.017 

.054 

.219 

.630 

5a 

59.6 

975 

2.02 

1.74 

1.051 

.013 

.056 

.222 

.635 

10a 

58.4 

1443 

1.75 

2.08         0.846 

.031 

.066 

.199 

.565 

11a 

59.0 

1773 

1.85 

1.92         0.944 

.020 

.071 

.205 

.568 

12a 

60.1 

2014 

1.86 

1.83         0.947 

.019 

.059 

.203 

.596 

13a 

60.2 

1963 

1.86 

1.85    j    0.952 

.015 

.054 

.203 

.601 

14a 

60.0 

2028 

1.85 

1.87    ;    0.952 

.018 

.054 

.209 

.585 

7a 

59.6 

2062 

1.8S 

1.87         0.962 

.010 

.052 

.218 

.599 

The  different  plots  were  fertilized  as  follows : 

2.  Farmyard  manure. 

3.  Unmanured. 

5a.  Mixed  mineral  manures. 
10a.  Ammonium  salts. 

11a.  Ammonium  salts  and  superphosphate  of  lime. 
12a.  Ammonium  salts,  superphosphate  and  sulphate  of  soda. 
13a.  Ammonium  salts,  superphosphate  and  sulphate  of  potash. 
14a.  Ammonium  salts,  superphosphate  and  sulphate  of  magnesium. 

la.  Mixed  mineral  manures  and  ammonium  salts. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  with  one  exception,  plot  5a,  the  nitrogen  content 
is  fairly  uniform.  Plot  5a  received  mineral  manures  alone  and  was 
deficient  in  nitrogen.  On  plot  10a,  which  received  ammonium  salts,  and, 
therefore,  an  abundant  supply  of  nitrogen,  the  nitrogen  content  was 
high  and  mineral  constituents  low.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  crop 
grown  on  plot  11a,  which  received  applications  of  lime,  contained  a 
higher  lime  content  than  the  crop  grown  on  any  of  the  other  plots.  On 
a  whole  the  ash  constituents  show  a  marked  uniformity.  It  appears, 
however,  that  they  are  directly  influenced  by  their  supply  or  exhaustion 
in  the  soil.  On  a  close  study  of  their  results  the  composition  of  the  crop 
seems  to  reflect  that  of  the  soil. 

Yon  Liebenberg0  and  E.  Von  Proskowetz  in  1893  found  from  fertilizer 
experiments  in  connection  with  the  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil  that  the 
yield  depends,  not  only  upon  an  adequate  supply  of  plant  food  in  the 
soil,  but  upon  the  relation  of  nitrogen  to  phosphoric  acid,  the  yield  being 
higher  the  greater  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  present. 

Their  results  show  that  the  ratio  of  nitrogen  to  phosphoric  acid  is 
greater  in  the  crop  than  in  the  soil,  and  that  the  supply  of  nitrogen  in 
the  soil  is  drawn  upon  much  more  largely  than  that  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Schindler7  stated  that  the  composition  of  the  grain  depends  upon  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  Also,  that  a  long  growing  period  from  the  time  of 
bloom  to  ripeness  caused  a  low  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  wheat,  that  the 

p    Sta.  Rec.   (1893)  Vol.  V.,  p.  702;  Abst. 

Ceiltralb.     56   (1893).  p.   345;  Abst.     Der  Weisen,  Berlin. 


BULLETIN  216]      FACTORS  INFLUENCING  WHEAT  COMPOSITION.  553 

weight  of  the  grain  is  affected  by  climate,  and  that  the  relation  between 
the  protein  and  carbohydrates  is  affected  by  the  length  of  the  growing 
period. 

Cross  and  Smith8  concluded  from  their  investigations  of  the  chemical 
history  of  the  barley  plant  that  the  condition  of  soil  nutrition  had  little 
influence  upon  the  composition  of  the  plant.  "The  plant,  in  other 
words,  is,  as  regards  soil  nutrition,  constant  or  invariable  in  respect  to 
the  relation  of  its  products  to  assimilation." 

In  1895  Januszowski9  from  experiments  planned  to  determine  the 
value  of  the  plant  analysis  in  estimating  the  quality  of  soil,  found  the 
results  misleading,  since  a  low  phosphoric  acid  content,  for  instance,  may 
be  due  not  to  the  deficiency  of  that  ingredient  in  the  soil  but  to  an  excess 
of  potash  or  nitrogen.  He  found  that  the  application  of  phosphoric  acid 
to  a  soil  deficient  in  that  element  was  followed  by  an  increase  in  phos- 
phoric acid  in  the  grain  grown  on  the  soil,  provided  the  application  of 
phosphoric  acid  was  not  accompanied  by  liberal  manuring  with  nitrogen. 

Liebscher  and  Edler10  noticed  that  the  application  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  increased  the  nitrogen  content  of  oats,  and  that  the  exclusive 
application  of  potash  caused  a  decrease  in  nitrogen  and  an  increase  in 
potash  in  the  plant.  With  a  complete  fertilizer,  the  percentage  of 
potash  was  lowest. 

In  studying  the  effect  of  humus  on  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  oats, 
Wiley11  conducted  pot  experiments  which  consisted  in  growing  oats  in 
peaty  soil  without  manures  and  with  various  manures.  The  soil  con- 
tained on  the  average  less  than  10  per  cent  of  mineral  matter,  about  2.5 
per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  very  little  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  The 
crop  was  very  high  in  nitrogen,  of  which  much  was  present  as  amid 
nitrogen  due  to  direct  absorption  from  the  soil.  The  protein  nitrogen 
remained  within  the  limits  of  the  usual  amounts  obtained  in  ordinary 
soil.  Potash  and  nitrogenous  manures  in  the  amounts  applied  had  no 
effect  upon  the  yield.  Phosphates  increased  the  yield  and  lowered  the 
percentage  of  nitrogen,  probably  due  to  increased  crop. 

Von  Seelhorst  and  Panaotovie12  in  1889  observed  that  the  nitrogen 
and  ash  constituents  of  cereals  increased  with  an  increase  in  space 
between  the  plants.  In  other  words,  within  certain  limits  the  nitrogen 
and  mineral  constituents  in  cereals  vary  directly  as  the  feeding  surface 
of  the  plants. 

Bogdan13  found  that  the  increase  of  the  salt  content  of  alkali  soils 
caused  an  increase  in  the  nitrogen  and  ash  contents  of  the  grain  grown 

8Chem.  News,  72   (1895)   No.  1883,  p.  307. 

9Bied.  Centr.,  1895,  vol.  28,  p.  27. 

"Jour.  Larrdw.,  1896,  p.  84. 

"Landw.  Versuchs.     Stats.  1897,  vol.  49,  p.  193. 

12Jour.  Landswirtschaft,  1899,  vol.  47,  p.  379. 

13Exp.  Sta.  Rec.   (1902)  XIII,  p.  329. 


554  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

therein  due  to  the  fact  that  the  absolute  weight  of  the  grain  diminished. 
This,  he  says,  explains  the  high  protein  content  of  wheat  from  the  east 
and  southeast  of  Russia,  where  the  soils  are  rich  in  nitrates  and  other 
soluble  salts. 

Godlewski14  in  1901  observed  that  in  the  case  of  potatoes  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  potash  in  soil  narrowed  the  ratio  of  potash  to  phosphoric  acid 
and  of  potash  to  nitrogen  in  the  tubers.  The  inadequate  supply  of 
nitrogen  caused  the  widening  of  the  ratio  of  potash  to  nitrogen  and 
narrowed  the  ratio  of  nitrogen  to  nearly  all  ash  constituents.  A  low 
nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  narrowed  the  ratio  of  nitrogen  to  phosphoric 
acid  in  barley  straw  without  affecting  the  relation  of  the  nitrogen  to  the 
other  elements,  while  an  insufficient  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  widened 
the  ratio  to  5.1,  and  is  considered  as  indicating  lack  of  phosphoric  acid 
in  the  soil.  An  adequate  supply  of  potash  in  the  soil  reduced  the  potash 
content  of  barley  straw  to  less  than  1  per  cent  in  the  dry  matter, 
increased  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  lime,  and  magnesia,  and  narrowed  the 
ratio  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  to  magnesia.  The  normal  relation 
of  potash,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  magnesia  in  barley  straw 
is  given  at  100,  50,  30,  40,  and  10.  The  author  showed  that  plants 
growing  in  a  soil  deficient  in  available  plant  food  of  any  kind  will,  in 
their  ash,  show  a  corresponding  deficiency,  or  at  least  a  minimum  pro- 
portion of  the  same ;  and  that  in  many  cases  the  nature  of  the  deficiency 
manifests  itself  in  the  form  or  development  of  the  plant  so  nearly  as  to 
render  chemical  analysis  unnecessary. 

In  1901,  Tollens15  stated  that  no  definite  relation  existed  between  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  ash  of  plants  and  the  soil  in  which  they  were 
grown.  The  stage  of  growth,  the  available  moisture,  the  thickness  of 
the  stand,  the  soil,  and  the  fertilizers,  are  all  important  factors  in  pro- 
ducing the  variations  in  the  composition  of  the  ash  of  plants. 

Wilfarth  and  Gcell16  found  that  increasing  amounts  of  potash  in  the 
soil  produced  corresponding  increased  amounts  of  that  ingredient  in  the 
plant. 

Whitson,  Wells,  and  Vivian,17  in  studying  the  influence  of  soil  on  the 
protein  content  of  crops,  conducted  field  and  pot  experiments  with  corn, 
oats,  barley,  rape,  and  cowpeas.  The  crops  were  grown  on  soils  of 
different  degrees  of  fertility,  and  nitrogen  determinations  were  made  at 
frequent  intervals  in  the  soil  and  in  the  crops.  In  one  instance,  the 
nitrogen  content  of  oats  grown  on  soils  having  the  same  physical  compo- 
sition, but  different  degrees  of  richness  in  nitrates,  was  1.93  per  cent  on 
the  poorest  soil,  2.53  per  cent  on  the  medium  soil,  and  2.66  per  cent  on 

"Exp.  Sta.  Rec.  (1902)  XIII,  p.  637;  Abst. 
16Exp.  Sta.  Rec.   (1901)  XII.  pp.  207  and  305. 
16Exp.  Sta.  Rec.   (1902)  XIII.  p.  1030;  Abst. 
l7Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Report,   1902,  p.  192. 


Bulletin  216]      FACTORS  INFLUENCING  WHEAT  COMPOSITION.  555 

the  richest  soil.  In  a  similar  test  with  corn,  the  figures  were  1.35,  1.59, 
and  1.80,  respectively.  The  results  of  the  experiments,  as  a  whole, 
indicated  that  crops  vary  greatly  in  their  nitrogen  contents  at  the  same 
stage  of  development,  and  that  this  variation  may  exist  even  when  crops 
are  making  practically  equal  growth.  Under  similar  seasonal  conditions 
the  amount  of  nitrates  in  the  soil  is  believed  to  be  the  most  important 
factor  in  causing  this  variation.  The  results  show  a  marked  relation 
between  the  amount  of  available  nitrogen  in  the  soil  and  the  nitrogen 
content  of  the  plant.  The  data  collected  indicated  that  the  richness  of 
the  soil  determines  the  yield  more  than  does  the  climate.  The  latter 
determines  the  length  of  the  growing  period  and  the  immunity  from 
early  or  late  frosts  and  the  possibility  of  bringing  the  plant  to  maturity. 

Wilfarth  and  Wimmer18  observed  that  a  deficiency  of  nitrogen  in  the 
soil  caused  an  increase  in  the  percentage  composition  of  carbohydrates, 
and  a  decrease  with  a  deficiency  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Soule  and  Vanatter19  stated  that  a  rich  soil,  or  the  use  of  fertilizers, 
did  not  seem  to  increase  the  protein  content  of  wheat  to  any  appreciable 
extent. 

Stahl-Schroder20  found,  from  a  series  of  experiments  with  oats  on 
heavy  and  light  soils  with  different  fertilizers^  that  the  composition  of 
the  seed  varies  considerably  with  the  season  and  with  the  character  of 
the  soils,  but  is  not  appreciably  affected  by  the  variety,  or  time  of 
planting.  He  concluded  that  the  analysis  of  the  seeds  as  a  means  of 
determining  the  assimilable  food  in  soils  gives  results  which  are  of  local 
value  only. 

Hall21  states  that  the  soil  is  the  least  effective  environmental  factor  in 
producing  variations  in  the  composition  of  wheat,  this  statement  being 
based  upon  data  obtained  from  experiments  with  oats  grown  in  pots 
containing  six  soils  of  very  different  characters,  which  showed  that  no 
strict  agreement  existed  between  the  composition  of  the  ash  of  the  plants 
and  of  the  soil.  The  variations  in  the  composition  of  crops  grown  in 
duplicate  pots  of  the  same  soil  were  very  often  greater  than  between 
those  grown  on  different  soils. 

Von  Seelhorst  and  Fresenius22  observed,  from  experiments  with  oats, 
that  the  nitrogen  content  of  oat  straw  was  decreased  when  the  amount 
of  moisture  applied  to  the  plants  was  increased. 

In  1902,  Widtsoe23  showed  that  the.  protein  content  of  wheat  increased 
very  markedly  as  the  amount  of  water  applied  to  the  soil  decreases. 
The  soil  that  received  30  inches  of  water  produced  wheat  containing 

18Jour.  Landw.  51  (1903),  p.  129. 

19Tenn.  Sta.  Bui.   (1903),  XVI,  No.  4. 

^Jour.  Landw.  52  (1904),  31. 

21Jour.  Soc.  of  Arts.  1904,  52  ;  No.  2711,  881. 

-Jour.  Landw..  1905.  vol.  53,  p.  27. 

"Utah  Sta.  Bui.  80   (1902),  148. 


556 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


15.26  per  cent  of  protein ;  while  the  wheat  produced  on  soil  that  received 
7.7  inches  contained  26.72  per  cent.  This  difference  between  the  wheat 
grown  on  non-irrigated  land  and  on  land  that  received,  13.79  inches  of 
water  was  2.82  per  cent. 

In  1906,  Le  Clerc24  published  that  the  protein  content  of  wheat  grown 
on  arid  land  was  higher  than  when  grown  on  irrigated  land.  The 
protein  content  of  wheat,  expressed  in  per  cent,  grown  on  irrigated  and 
on  adjoining  non-irrigated  land  was  11.1  and  17.7,  respectively. 

Pingree25  in  studying  the  effect  of  various  fertilizers  upon  the  com- 
position of  oats  found  that  where  muriate  of  potash  was  applied  alone 
and  as  part  of  a  complete  fertilizer  a  distinct  increase  of  potash  was 
found  in  the  ash  of  the  plant;  also,  the  application  of  dissolved  phos- 
phate caused  an  increase  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  ash  of  the  plant. 

Snyder26  showed  that  by  the  proper  application  of  fertilizers  the 
quality  of  wheat  could  be  improved  and  thus  increase  the  protein  con- 
tent at  least  1  per  cent.    Some  of  his  results  are  expressed  in  Table  IV. 


TABLE   IV. 

Protein  and  ash  content  of  wheat  grown  on  plots  receiving  different  fertilizers. 


Kind   of   fertilizers. 


Nitrogen   

Potash  

Phosphoric  acid  

Complete  (N,  K20,  P205) 
No  fertilizer 


Number  of 

Protein 

samples. 

Nx6.25. 

12 

13.63 

12 

13.02 

12 

12.65 

12 

13.17 

12 

13.04 

Ash. 


1.58 
1.62 
1.73 
1.69 
1.64 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  protein  content  was  highest  in  the  wheat 
grown  on  plots  receiving  a  nitrogenous  fertilizer,  and  lowest  on  plots 
fertilized  only  with  phosphoric  acid. 

Stewart  and  Greaves27  found  that  the  ash  of  plants  grown  in  Utah  is 
high,  due  to  the  richness  of  the  soil  in  mineral  constituents ;  and  that  the 
nitrogen  content  of  wheat  grown  on  arid  land  is  higher  than  that  of 
wheat  grown  on  irrigated  land,  which  is  in  accord  with  the  facts  observed 
by  Le  Clerc. 

"Yearbook  1906,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  199. 
25Penn.  State  College  Report,  1906,  43. 
26Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Society,  1908,  30:  1,  604. 
"Utah  Sta.  Bui.  103   (1908). 


BULLETIN  216]      FACTORS  INFLUENCING  WHEAT  COMPOSITION.  557 


EXPERIMENTAL  DATA. 

In  1905,  the  California  Experiment  Station,  in  collaboration  with  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, undertook  an  investigation  along  a  similar  line,  which  consisted 
in  growing  wheat  from  the  same  original  seed  continuously  in  each  of 
three  localities,  viz.:  (1)  Kansas,  Texas,  and  California;  (2)  in  South 
Dakota,  Kansas,  and  California. 

The  crop  from  the  apex  of  each  of  these  two  triangles  was  sent  to  each 
of  the  other  two  stations  of  the  same  triangle  and  there  grown  under  the 
same  conditions  as  the  continuously  grown  seed.  Thus,  at  each  station 
there  were  three  plats  all  from  the  same  original  seed,  the  seed  of  the 
other  two  plats  coming  from  the  other  points  of  the  triangle.  Two 
varieties  of  wheat  were  thus  grown,  viz.:  Crimean,  C.  I.,  1437  (?),  a 
common  wheat  of  the  winter  type ;  and  Kubanka,  C.  I.,  1440,  a  durum 
variety.  The  former  was  grown  in  California.  Kansas,  and  Texas,  the 
original  seed  having  been  grown  in  Kansas  in  1905 ;  the  latter  in  Cali- 
fornia, Kansas,  and  South  Dakota,  the  original  seed  having  been  grown 
in  South  Dakota  in  1905.  These  plantings  have  been  continued  until 
the  present  year. 

Samples  were  taken  each  year  and  analyses  made,  the  detailed  analyses 
as  made  by  Dr.  J.  A.  LeClerc,  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  have  been  published  in  Bulletin  128 
of  that  Bureau.  The  results  obtained  from  analyses  of  the  same  samples 
made  at  this  station  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  published  by 
Dr.  Le  Clerc,  and  consequently  need  not  be  duplicated  in  the  present 
paper. 

The  essential  conclusions  from  these  analyses  are  stated  by  Dr.  Le 
Clerc  as  follows : 

(1)  "Wheats  of  the  same  variety  when  grown  in  the  same  locality 
and  under  the  same  conditions  are,  therefore,  seen  to  vary  but  little  in 
composition,  although  coming  from  seed  differing  widely  in  physical 
and  chemical  characteristics.  These  results  are  corroborative  of  Ecken- 
brecher's  work  with  barley,  and  are  entirely  at  variance  with  Hall's 
statement  that  'each  race  or  variety  possesses  qualities  which  are  modi- 
lied  only  to  a  slight  degree  by  seed,  soil,  or  climate. '  ' ' 

(2)  "Wheat  of  any  one  variety,  from  any  one  source,  and  absolutely 
alike  in  chemical  and  physical  characteristics,  when  growTn  in  different 
localities,  possessing  different  climatic  conditions,  yields  crops  of  very 
widely  different  appearance  and  very  different  in  chemical  composi- 
tion/' 

(3)  "The  results  so  far  obtained  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  soil 


558  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

and  seed  play  a  relatively  small  part  in  influencing  the  composition  of 
crops. 

While  the  above  results  seem  to  indicate  that  the  climatic  factor  is 
the  principal,  if  not  the  only  one,  affecting  the  nitrogen  content  of 
wheat,  yet  the  experiment  was  subject  to  the  same  sources  of  error  and 
elements  of  doubt,  as  all  of  the  other  trials  where  seed  transference  had 
been  practiced  in  the  prosecution  of  studies  of  this  problem,  viz.,  a 
change  of  both  soil  and  climate  at  the  same  time,  thus  giving  two 
variable  factors,  both  climate  and  soil. 

In  1907,  the  senior  author  undertook  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  one  of 
these  factors,  viz.,  climate,  by  securing  from  Hays,  Kansas,  a  sufficient 
amount  of  soil,  known  to  have  produced  for  a  number  of  years  high 
gluten  wheat,  to  make  a  plat  6  feet  long,  3  feet  wide,  and  3  feet  deep. 
That  this  Kansas  soil  was  capable  of  producing  a  high  gluten  wheat  is 
evidenced  by  the  protein  content  of  the  wheat  grown  upon  it  the 
previous  season  and  forwarded  together  with  the  soil.  This  wheat 
showed  a  protein  content  of  20.06  per  cent,  as  indicated  in  the  table 
below. 

The  soil  was  removed  from  its  original  position  in  the  ground  in  six- 
inch  layers  which  were  shipped  in  bags  to  the  University  Farm  at  Davis, 
California,  where  it  was  placed  in  a  hole  previously  prepared  to  receive 
it,  the  soil  being  placed  in  said  hole  in  the  sequence  indicated  by  the 
labels,  thus  bringing  the  original  bottom  soil  in  the  corresponding 
position  to  that  occupied  in  Kansas,  and  the  same  for  each  other  six- 
inch  layer.  A  second  plat  was  prepared  in  a  similar  manner  alongside 
of  it  by  removing  the  soil  from  a  like  area  and  to  the  same  depth,  and 
replacing  the  same  soil  in  the  hole  whence  it  had  been  removed.  Each 
of  the  holes  previous  to  refilling  was  lined  by  a  rather  loose  cement 
lining  1J  inches  thick,  except  the  bottom,  which  was  left  without  lining, 
the  object  being  to  prevent  the  roots  from  passing  beyond  their  own  area 
of  soil  laterally.  In  placing  the  soil  in  the  holes,  it  was  dry-tamped  to 
settle  it  as  much  as  possible,  and  thus  it  was  allowed  to  remain  until  the 
rain  had  settled  it,  after  which  each  plat  was  cultivated  and  seeded. 

<  )n  each  of  the  two  plats  two  types  of  wheat  were  grown  from  1907 
to  1910,  inclusive.  On  one  end  of  each  of  the  plats  was  placed  a  high 
gluten  Turkey  Red  wheat,  which  grew  on  the  Kansas  soil  the  previous 
year,  and  which  another  table  shows  carried  an  unusually  high  protein 
content.  On  the  other  end  of  each  plat  was  seeded  a  low  protein  Cali- 
fornia-grown Durum  wheat. 

I  >y  this  soil  transfer  it  was  intended  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  climate 
and  hare  as  a  variable  factor  only  the  soil,  whereas  by  the  seed-transfer 
method  heretofore  practiced,  there  were  always  two  variables  and  one 
could  never  be  certain  what  proportional  influence  might  be  due  to  soil 
and  what  to  climate  in  whatever  variation  occurred  in  the  product. 


Bulletin  216]     FACTORS  INFLUENCING  WHEAT  COMPOSITION. 


559 


The  writer's  idea  in  using  both  a  low-protein  and  high-protein  grain 
in  this  experiment  was  to  secure  something  of  a  check,  believing  that  if 
the  soil  should  prove  to  be  the  controlling  factor,  then  the  high-gluten 
Kansas  wheat  would  remain  high  gluten  and  fall  materially  lower  upon 
the  California  soil,  and  that  the  low-gluten  California  would  remain 
practically  the  same  in  the  California  soil  plat  and  show  a  marked 
increase  in  gluten  when  grown  on  the  Kansas  soil  under  California 
climate.  The  results  set  forth  in  the  table  do  not  show  that  the  soil  has 
produced  any  marked  effect  of  this  kind. 

The  Soils. — The  two  soils  used  in  this  experiment  show  a  marked  con- 
trast in  appearance  and  in  texture.  The  California  soil  is  the  type  which 
is  quite  general  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  and  known  as  a  gray  silt 
loam.  It  has  been  cropped  to  grain  for  many  years — at  least  forty — and 
is  still  producing  under  good  culture  heavy  crops.  It  is  quite  inclined 
to  bake  and  crust  if  wet  upon  top  and  then  allowed  to  dry.  It  is  more 
inclined  to  do  this  than  is  the  soil  from  Kansas.  The  Kansas  soil  is 
black  in  color,  and  carries  markedly  less  sand  than  the  California  soil, 
as  will  be  seen  from  the  subjoined  mechanical  analysis,  this  difference 
in  sand  being  compensated  by  a  corresponding  increase  in  silt,  while  the 
clay  and  fine  silt  content  of  the  two  types  is  essentially  the  same.  This 
type  would  undoubtedly  be  classed  as  a  silt  loam,  although  it  exhibits 
essentially  different  properties  than  the  California  soil. 

The  details  of  the  mechanical  analysis  are  shown  in  the  following 
table : 

TABLE  V. 
Mechanical  constituents  of  soils  from   Davis  and  Kansas. 


Diameters  of 
sediments. 

Pe'centage, 
Davis. 

Composition, 

Kansas. 

mm. 

Clay   ___ 

19.12 

40.93 
3.35 

1.34 

7.75 
8.78 

8.10 
3.30 
4.15 
3.07 

18.26 

to  .016 

Fine  silt _     .__ 

44.56 

.016  to  .025 
.025  to  .036 

Silt    

3.20 
11.01 

.036  to  .047 
.047  to  .072 

.072  to  .12 

Sand  

12.27 
7.49 

1.19 

.12    to  .16 
.16    to  .30 
.30    to  .50 

Summary. 
Clay   

.72 
.46 
.76 

99.89 

19.12 
44.28 
17.87 
18.62 

99.92 
18.26 

Fine  silt 

44.7t> 

Silt    

30.77 

Sand  

3.13 

99.89 

99.92 

560 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  chemical  composition  of  the  soils  as  represented  by  one-foot 
samples  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  the  analyses  having  been  made 
according  to  so-called  official  method : 


TABLE  VI. 
Comparison  of  soils  in  soil  transference. 


First  foot. 

Second  foot. 

Third  foot. 

California.  (      Kansas. 

California. 

1 

Kansas. 

| 
California.  !     Kansas. 

Insoluble  matter 76.04 

Soluble  matter 23.96 

Iron  and  alumina  _                    15.43 

79.79 
20.21 

10.57 
.88 

1.22 
.22 
.66 
.15 
.30 

6.50 

76.83 
23.17 

13.84 

1.43 

1.74 

.27 

.49 

.08 

.32 

4.83 

80.19          77.80 
19.81          22.20 

10.67          13.40 
.73              .97 

2.40            1.58 
.44              .25 
.75              .45 
.05    ;          .07 
.36              .34 

4.47            5.30 

79.80 
20.20 

10.85 

1.26 

2.25 

.33 

.87 
08 

Calcium  oxid .85 

Magnesium  oxid  1          .76 

Sodium  oxid _            .14 

Potassium  oxid- .52 

Sulfuric  acid  __  _ '          .13 

Phosphoric  acid  __ .34 

.41 
411 

Volatile  matter __      i       5.87 

Total  soluble  matter.-!      24.04 

Total  nitrogen  in  soil .100 

Humus  in  soil__      _  _    j        1.54 

20.50 
.163 
1.54 
.10 

23.00 
.085 
1.24 
.03 

19.87 
.057 
.707 
.062 

22.36 
.058 
1.70 
.052 

20.16 
.034 
1.12 

Nitrogen  in  humus j         .07 

.025 

In  each  foot  the  total  soluble  matter  in  the  California  soil  exceeds  that 
of  the  Kansas  soil.  The  principal  difference  in  the  two  appears  in  the 
iron-alumina  content. 

Jn  the  top  foot,  of  the  essential  elements  of  plant  food  there  appears 
practically  no  difference  in  either  lime,  potash  or  phosphoric  acid.  Both 
soils  appear  well  supplied  with  all  three  of  these  compounds,  and  this 
similarity  of  composition  also  extends  to  the  humus,  which  is  identical 
in  amount  in  the  two  soils,  and  to  the  nitrogen  of  the  humus. 

The  same  general  relation  holds  with  reference  to  the  soluble  portion 
of  the  second  foot,  the  California  soil  showing  23.17  per  cent,  as  against 
19.81  per  cent  for  the  Kansas  soil.  The  same  general  difference  holds, 
also,  with  regard  to  the  iron-alumina  content,  but  in  the  matter  of  lime 
there  is  a  marked  increase  in  the  California  soil  and  a  slight  decrease  in 
the  Kansas  soil.  There  is  a  distinct  increase  in  the  second  foot  of  both 
soils,  but  no  essential  change  or  difference  in  phosphoric  acid  content. 
The  humus  content  quite  markedly  decreases  in  both  soils,  the  California 
soil  showing  about  one  sixth  less  and  the  Kansas  soil  less  than  one  half 
as  much.  This  same  difference  shows  in  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  soil, 
but  the  nitrogen  in  the  humus  appears  to  be  higher  in  the  Kansas  soil 
which  is  also  true  of  the  first  foot  of  soil. 


BULLETIN  216]      FACTORS  INFLUENCING  WHEAT  COMPOSITION.  561 

In  the  third  foot  the  Kansas  soil  shows  the  larger  per  cent  of  lime,  also 
of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  while  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  soil  still  is 
the  higher  in  the  California  soil.  In  both  the  California  and  the  Kansas 
soils  there  appears  more  humus  in  the  third  foot  than  in  the  second  foot, 
but  there  is  still  less  in  the  Kansas  than  in  the  California  soil,  although 
the  nitrogen  in  the  humus  has  decreased  by  about  one  half  and  that  of 
the  home  soil  increased. 

Thus,  we  may  sum  up  the  soil  difference  as  follows :  A  distinctly  larger 
amount  of  soluble  matter  in  the  California  soil ;  the  top  foot  in  the  two 
soils  essentially  the  same ;  in  the  second  foot  about  twice  as  much  lime  in 
the  California  as  in  the  Kansas  soil ;  about  two  sevenths  more  potash  in 
the  Kansas  soil  than  in  the  California.  The  California  soil  carries  a 
distinctly  larger  amount  of  soluble  matter,  but  otherwise  is  essentially 
the  same,  except  for  total  nitrogen,  in  which  the  Kansas  soil  exceeds 
by  about  one  third.  It  carries  double  the  lime  in  the  second  foot,  but 
not  only  decreases  in  amount  in  the  third  foot,  but  falls  well  below  the 
Kansas  soil.  It  carries  less  potash,  but  in  phosphoric  acid  does  not 
differ  materially.  In  total  nitrogen  it  exceeds  that  of  Kansas,  as  it  does 
in  humus  content. 

In  the  matter  of  nitrogen  the  Kansas  soil  is  the  better  supplied  in  the 
top  foot,  but  otherwise  the  advantage  lies  with  the  California  soil. 
Inasmuch  as  the  bulk  of  the  feeding  roots  of  the  plant  are  in  the  second 
foot,  the  California  soils  seems  to  have  an  advantage  and  this  is  quite 
significant  when  considered  with  the  results  obtained  from  the  analysis 
of  the  grain  grown  on  these  two  plots. 


FIELD  NOTES. 

Field  notes  and  observations  for  the  two  seasons  here  reported  were 
made  as  follows: 


562 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


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563 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


In  the  season  of  1907-08  it  will  be  noted  that  the  Durum  wheat 
(Kubanka)  headed  two  days  later  on  the  Kansas  soil  than  on  the  home 
soil,  and  that  it  also  matured  two  days  earlier  on  the  Davis  soil.  In 
the  case  of  the  Turkey  Red  grain,  if  there  was  any  difference  in  rapidity 
of  growth,  it  was  in  favor  of  the  Davis  soil;  but  the  grain  matured  in 
both  soils  in  the  same  time,  viz.,  152  days.*  These  plats  were  appar- 
ently under  as  uniform  a  condition  in  the  field  as  it  was  possible  to  make 
them. 

Field  notes  for  the  season  of  1908-09  do  not  show  that  the  conditions 
of  growth  were  as  uniform  as  in  the  preceding  season.  During  this 
season  the  rate  of  growth  was  slightly  greater  upon  the  Kansas  soil.  On 
May  5th,  the  Turkey  Red  wheat  was  2  feet  6  inches  tall  on  the  Kansas 
soil,  but  only  2  feet  3  inches  on  the  Davis  soil,  and  a  similar  difference 
held  for  the  Durum  wheat  also.  The  mass  of  growth  was  also  somewhat 
heavier  on  the  Kansas  soil  plat. 

At  harvest  the  Durum  wheat  gave  the  following  yield  upon  each  of 
the  plats : 


Davis  soil. 

Kansas  soil. 

Number 

of                      Weight. 
plants. 

Number 

of 
plants. 

Weight. 

Border   plants   __  __. 

35            2  lb.  11  oz. 
45            31b.  11  oz. 

29 
52 

31b.    3oz. 

Interior  plants _      _  _    

5  lb.    8  oz. 

Total 

80 

61b.    6oz. 

81 

81b.  11  oz. 

The  Turkey  Red  wheat  was  not  weighed. 

The  results  of  analyses  for  these  plots  are  expressed  in  Table  VIII. 


VARIATIONS   IN   NITROGEN   CONTENT. 

Since  the  nitrogenous  ingredients  of  wheat  are  of  the  chief  import- 
ance, the  principal  attention  will  be  directed  toward  these  in  the  dis- 
cussion. In  the  case  of  the  low-protein  original,  each  of  the  soil  plats 
produced  in  1907-08  grain  of  higher  protein  content  than  the  original 
by  about  4.5  per  cent,  thus  indicating  a  very  marked  seasonal  influence. 
In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  the  entire  grain  crop  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley  in  that  season  showed  a  higher  gluten  content  than 
it  did  in  the  preceding  season,  and  this  becomes  quite  significant  when 
••onsidered  with  the  other  data  bearing  on  this  question.  Comparing 
the  grain  produced  upon  the  two  types  of  soil,  it  is  easily  seen  that  there 
is  no  practical  difference  in  total  protein  between  the  two  lots,  showing 
as  they  do  15.14  per  cent  and  15.07  per  cent,  respectively,  for  California 

*Thla  time  is  reckoned  from  the  date  of  coming-  up  to  the  date  of  ripening. 


BULLETIN  216]      FACTORS  INFLUENCING  WHEAT  COMPOSITION.  565 

and  Kansas  soils,  these  soils  being  under  the  same  climatic  conditions, 
the  very  slight  difference  being  entirely  within  the  range  of  analytical 
error.  What  slight  difference  there  is,  however,  is  in  favor  of  the  Cali- 
fornia soil.  If  we  turn  to  the  trial  with  the  high-protein  original  (981) 
grown  in  Kansas,  it  is  clear  that,  while  under  the  California  climate 
there  has  been  a  lowering  of  the  total  protein  on  this  soil  by  about  2  per 
cent,  yet  this  has  taken  place  both  on  the  California  plat  and  the  Kansas 
plat  by  practically  the  same  amount,  there  being  only  a  difference  of 
0.27  per  cent  and  this  slight  difference  in  favor  of  the  California  soil. 
This  difference,  however,  is  too  small  to  be  attributed  with  any  cer- 
tainty to  any  inherent  difference  in  soil  composition. 

In  the  season  of  1908-09  both  high  and  low  gluten  types  of  wheat  were 
grown  on  these  plats  as  in  the  preceding  year.  The  low-gluten  Durum 
original  was  even  lower  than  that  of  the  preceding  year,  carrying  but 
9.43  per  cent  protein.  The  same  conditions  as  in  1907-08  are  again 
shown  on  these  plats,  viz.,  a  higher  development  of  total  protein  in  the 
product  in  each  of  the  plats  than  in  the  original  used,  the  increase  being 
about  3.50  per  cent,  but,  as  between  the  tivo  plats,  there  was  no  prac- 
tical difference,  13.23  per  cent  and  12.95  per  cent  for  California  and 
Kansas  soils,  respectively,  or  but  0.28  per  cent.  That  of  the  preceding 
year  was  0.27  per  cent.  In  both  years  the  slight  difference  was  in  favor 
of  the  California  soil. 

The  high-protein  original  (981)  used  for  this  season  was  the  same  as 
that  of  the  preceding  season,  and  again  there  was  a  marked  lowering  of 
the  protein  content  under  the  California  condition.  There  was  a  greater 
difference  in  the  case  of  this  wheat  than  in  the  preceding  trials,  the 
California  soil  plat  showing  15.07  per  cent  total  protein  and  the  Kansas 
plat  14.32  per  cent;  in  other  words,  a  difference  of  .70  per  cent,  again 
in  favor  of  the  California  soil. 

If  now  we  turn  attention  to  the  alcohol-soluble  nitrogen  content,  it 
will  be  seen  that  there  is  the  same  general  change  between  the  original 
used  and  the  resulting  product,  viz.,  a  well-defined  lowering  of  the 
nitrogen  in  the  case  of  the  low  protein  type,  yet,  as  between  the  two 
plats,  such  difference  as  occurs  is,  in  general,  in  favor  of  the  Kansas 
soil.  In  the  case  of  the  grain  produced  from  the  low-protein  original, 
the  two  plats  showed  an  essential  difference,  1.18  per  cent  and  1.23  per 
cent,  respectively,  for  California  and  Kansas  soils.  Such  small  differ- 
ence as  occurs,  viz.,  .06  per  cent,  is  in  this  case  in  favor  of  the  California 
soil,  and  in  each  of  the  succeeding  years,  including  1909-10,  this  differ- 
ence in  alcohol-soluble  nitrogen  is  very  slight,  but  uniformly  runs  in 
favor  of  the  Kansas  soil.  However,  the  differences  that  occur  are  prob- 
ably too  small  to  be  attributed  to  any  difference  in  the  soil  character- 
istics, and  might  well  come  within  the  limits  of  analytical  error. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  case  of  the  salt- 


566  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

soluble  nitrogen  such  small  differences  as  appear  from  the  analyses,  with 
the  exception  of  the  first  season,  have  been  in  favor  of  the  Kansas  soil, 
but  here  again,  as  in  the  preceding,  there  is  altogether  too  slight  a 
difference  to  attribute  it  to  the  soil  without  a  much  longer  series  of  tests. 

The  other  constituents  and  the  ..physical  appearance  of  the  grain 
produced  on  the  two  plats  were  practically  identical,  although  the  fat 
content  has  been  uniformly  in  favor  of  the  Kansas  soil  plat  by  about 
0.2  per  cent. 

From  these  results  it  would  appear  that  a  normal  soil  has  little  if  any 
influence  upon  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  wheat  kernel,  but  that 
climatic  factors  are  the  controlling  ones.  The  experiment  has  been  of 
such  short  duration,  however,  that  it  needs  further  corroboration  before 
it  can  be  accepted  absolutely. 

THE  TRIANGULAR  SOIL  EXCHANGE  EXPERIMENT. 

In  1908,  a  year  later  than  the  experiments  described  in  the  preceding 
pages,  a  second  set  of  soil  plats  were  secured  in  cooperation  with  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  order  to  broaden  the  scope 
of  the  experiments.  These  plats  serve  a  very  useful  purpose  as  a  check 
upon  the  results  secured  from  the  original  plats,  as  well  as  furnishing 
results  in  an  independent  experiment.  The  Kansas  soil  used  in  the 
second  series  is  from  the  same  place  and  is  of  the  same  physical  char- 
acteristic as  that  secured  for  the  first  series,  as  is  also  the  Davis  soil  and 
the  undisturbed  check  plat  used  in  this  experiment.  The  third  plat  is 
of  soil  from  the  Arlington  farm  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  in  Maryland,  and  of  a  distinctly  different  type. 

In  this  experiment  the  arrangement  is  somewhat  different  than  in  the 
first  series,  and  consisted  in  transferring  a  sufficient  quantity  of  soil 
from  each  of  three  experiment  stations  located  in  California,  Kansas, 
and  Maryland,  to  each  of  the  others,  viz.,  a  plot,  5  feet  square  and  3  feet 
deep,  of  California  soil  was  sent  to  each  of  the  other  two  stations,  and  in 
exactly  the  same  way  plots  of  Kansas  soil  were  sent  to  California  and 
Maryland,  and  plots  of  Maryland  soil  were  sent  to  California  and 
Kansas.  Wheat  from  the  same  original  seed,  supplied  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  was  grown  in  these  different  soils  at  the  three 
stations  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  the  soil  on  the  composition  of  the  crop. 
There  were  thus  four  plots  of  soil  at  each  station  used  in  the  experiment, 
two  were  imported  soil  and  the  other  two  home  soil,  one  of  which  had 
been  disturbed  as  were  the  others  in  shipping,  and  the  other  was  undis- 
turbed home  soil.  Under  these  conditions  all  the  disturbing  factors  save 
those  due  to  the  soils  alone  were  eliminated. 

It  must  be  stated  that  a  supposition  is  made  in  the  premises,  namely, 
1  luit  the  plants  do  not  assimilate  any  of  the  constituent  elements  of  plant 
food  contained  in  the  soil  below  the  third  foot.    It  is  believed,  however, 


Bulletin  216]     factors  INFLUENCING  wheat  composition. 


567 


that  the  crop  as  a  whole  obtained  its  food  from  the  food  constituents 
contained  in  the  first  three  feet  of  soil,  although  as  a  matter  of  fact  in 
the  Kansas  and  the  Davis  soil  plats  the  wheat  roots  did  extend  below 
the  third  foot. 

Observations  were  made  to  ascertain  the  depth  the  roots  penetrated 
the  soil,  and  it  was  found  that  in  one  or  two  instances  the  roots  of  the 
plants  grown  on  the  California  and  Kansas  soil  reached  a  depth  of  42 
inches.  On  the  Maryland  soil  plat  no  plant  roots  were  found  to  go 
beyond  the  first  three  feet.  It  is  firmly  believed  that  the  crops  as  a 
whole  obtained  their  food  from  the  food  constituents  contained  in  the 
first  three  feet  of  soil. 

It  was  thought  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  that  a  cement  block 
or  metal  sheet  under  the  first  three  feet  of  soil,  to  prevent  the  roots  from 
going  to  a  greater  depth,  would  cause  other  abnormal  conditions,  such 
as  a  drying-out  of  the  soil,  which  would,  in  the  end,  give  results  no  more 
reliable  and  would  not  be  comparable  with  the  check  plat.  Each  plat 
of  soil  was,  however,  walled  with  California  redwood. 

The  California  soil  used  in  the  experiment  is  described  as  a  Sacra- 
mento silt  loam.  The  Kansas  soil  is  a  dark  heavy  loam,  while  the  soil 
from  Maryland  is  a  light  yellow  clay.  The  three  soils  are  not  lacking 
in  any  of  the  principal  plant-food  constituents  and  have  the  composition 

given  in  the  table  below : 

table  IX. 

Percentage  composition  of  soils. 
California  Soil. 


Nitrogen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Potash. 


Sul- 
phuric 

acid. 


Lime.      !  Magnesia. 


First  . 
Second 
Third  . 


Average 


.118 

.161 

.49 

.121 

.704 

.074 

.127 

.473 

.053 

.621 

.058 

.124 

.462 

.046 

.683 

.083 

.137 

.475 

.073 

.669 

.703 
1.69 
1.48 

1.29 


Maryland  Soil. 


First  _ 
Second 
Third  . 


Average 


.111 

.076 
.042 

.076 

.114 
.127 
.111 

.117 

.342 

.278 
.450 

.357 

.13 

.111 

.053 

.098 

.191 
.222 
.204 

.205 

.42 
4.75 
4.72 

3.29; 


Kansas   Soil. 


First  .. 
Second 
Third  . 


Average 


.174 

.160 

.602 

.14 

.89 

.121 

.173 

.783 

.08 

.796 

.040 

.165 

.902 

.09 

1.69 

.111 

.166 

.762 

.10 

1.125 

1.301 

2.29 

2.18 

1.92 


Note. — The  "Official  Methods"  recorded  in  Bulletin  No.  107  (revised)  of  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  were  followed  in  making  the  analyses  recorded 
in  this  paper. 


568 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


During  the  first  season  of  the  experiment,  1908-09,  Turkey  wheat 
(No.  1571)  was  grown  on  the  four  plats  of  soil.  This  is  a  common 
winter  wheat,  and  was  supplied  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Instead  of  using  the  same  Turkey  seed  in  the  second 
season's  experiment,  a  high  protein  wheat,  Crimean,  a  common  winter 
wheat,  was  used.  The  results  obtained  from  these  two  varieties  of  wheat 
during  the  two  seasons  are  given  in  the  following  table : 


TABLE  X. 

Percentage  composition  of  original  seed  and  wheat  produced  from  it  on  the  various 

soil  plots. 

First  Season — 1908-1909. 


Nitrogen. 


Ash. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Potash. 


Sul- 
phuric 
acid. 


1067 
1066 
1065 
1064 


Check  

California 
Maryland 
Kansas    __. 


2.74 
2.86 
2.11 
2.07 


1.60 
1.45 
1.68 
1.47 


.842 

.799 

1.196 

.771 


.55 
.529 
.673 
.537 


.839 
.737 
.603 
.544 


.067 
.113 
.150 
.157 


Original  Turkey  Seed. 


Original 


2.35 


1.86  0.87 


0.62 


0.10 


Second  Season — 1909- 

1910. 

1078 

Check  

2.36 
2.50 
3.06 
1.97 

1.80 
1.77 
2.40 
1.68 

.850 

.788 

1.000 

.875 

.567 
.602 
.703 
.569 

.896 
.687 
.984 
.611 

.087 

1077 

California  

.175 

1076 

Maryland  

.110 

1075 

Kansas    

.197 

Original  Crimean  Seed. 


1074 


Original 


3.06 


1.71 


.861 


.604 


.894 


.090 


♦There  was  not  enough  of  this  sample  available  to  make  a  determination  of  the 
mineral  constituents.  The  figures  here  given  were  furnished  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Le  Clerc,  of 
the  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 


Bulletin  216]    factors  influencing  wheat  composition. 


569 


Tt< 

C5 

CO 

CM 

OJ 

Is. 

^ 

i— • 

l^; 

CTi 

rH 

— ■* 

Maryland  soil. 

r-^ 

CM 

~ 

CM 

i-i 

Q 

o 

I  - 

CO 

No.   1076 _ 

— r 

CO 

^O 

1  - 

g 

CO 

-«f 

?1 

CO 

t» 

t-; 

t^ 

eo 

o 

Kansas  soil. 

,_< 

^ 

co 

-T 

iO 

C 

T) 

No.   1075 

'- ' 

co 

CO 

C 

CO 

o 

©5 

t^ 

^H 

CM 

Ol 

,— | 

s 

© 

CM 

CO 

CO 

o 

03 

California  soil. 

S 

CM 

rH 

CM 

^ 

o 

^1 

CI 

e 

No.   1077 

o 

l- 

o 

tn 

<=> 

<J3 
02 

1 

58 

iO 

lO 

CO 

CO 

co 

Check  California 

"* 

CO 

CO 

OS 

"*. 

co 

CO 

>-i 

soil,  undisturbed. 

CO 

cm 

,_l 

CM 

o 

OS 

r^ 

00 

No.   1078 

rt 

1 

■ 

©4 

CSS 

s 

85 

o 

OS 

CO 
CM 

3 

?: 

Original  C.    I.    No. 

r^ 

CM 

o 

LO 

ci 

e 

1571.     No.   1074.  _ 

1-1 

o 

££ 

4 

Kl 

o 

^ 

CO 

■* 

81 

,_, 

r^ 

CO 

~ 

<M 

l> 

o 

Tfi 

t>; 

^ 

i-O 

Maryland  soil. 

co 

cm 

CO 

r^ 

CM 

CO 

CM 

No.   1065 

1-1 

Ci 

1 

o 

co 

S* 

s? 

_ 

& 

lO 

Tt< 

o 

o 

o 

g 

CO 

lO 

■^ 

CO 

lO 

r^ 

Ol 

8 
8 

Kansas  soil. 

CN 

co 

SS 

o 

gB 

CS 

No.    1064A 

1-1 

t^ 

Ol 

CO 
OJ 

*. 

*» 

• 

8 

o 

00 

o 

8 

1*1 

o 

CM 

g? 

CO 

CM 

CO 

CO 

CO 
CO 

8 

r* 

California  soil. 

CO 

,_i 

cm 

co 

OS 

p; 

Cvl 

s 

fl 

No.    1066A 

,— < 

o 

g 

CSi 

S 

cS 
to 
02 

00 

Check  California 

CO 

o 

CD 

o 

8 

CM 

co 

o 

g 

to 

soil,  undisturbed. 
No.   1067 

id 

T-t 

CM 

co 

T— ' 

i 

«*-» 

o 

o 

CO 

•2 

«<»< 

CO 

OD 

Original   C.    I.    No. 

CO 

r4 

Si 



T~) 

e 

to 

■ka 

e 

5 

§ 

o 

•- 

a 

a 

e 

C3» 

8 

V. 

x 

i 

c 

o 

S 

p 

■8 
65 

• 

q 

<v 
cjo 
O 

+3 

q 

o 

CJO 

O 

c 
M 

X 

'5 

*Q 

2 

9 

!      ! 

.2 

3 

4J 

"3 

>. 

X 

X 

! 

+9 

s 

^o 

0 

'3 

- 

~ 

0 

o 

m 

1 

3 

q 

be 

tx 

q 

ca 

q 

, 

o 

^ 

4J 

y. 

c 

H 

o 

CO 

pj 

C 

■*j 

4J 

Fh 

A 

1 

- 

C, 

O 

S 

o 

o 

o 

CJ 

o 

c 

Eh 

X 

4-1 

S3 

o 

X 

»H 

(h 

a 

< 

fe 

&| 

< 

X 

P^ 

Pi 

u: 

s 

570  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


VARIATION  IN    CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF   GRAIN. 

The  original  Crimean  seed  which  had  been  produced  on  Kansas  soil 
in  Kansas  and  containing  a  high  nitrogen  content,  3.04  per  cent,  when 
grown  on  Kansas  soil  in  California  fell  to  1.91  per  cent,  a  decrease  of 
1.13  per  cent.  The  nitrogen  content  of  the  same  seed  remained  almost 
exactly  the  same  when  grown  on  Maryland  soil  in  California,  and 
decreased  to  2.4  per  cent  when  grown  on  California  soil  in  California. 
In  this  connection  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  nitrogen  content  of  the 
Kansas  soil  was  the  highest,  while  the  Maryland  soil  contained  the 
least  amount  of  nitrogen.  The  grain  produced  on  the  Maryland  soil 
was  pinched  and  the  yield  was  low,  probably  due  to  the  inability  of  that 
soil  to  hold  moisture.  This  fact  accounts  for  the  high  nitrogen  content 
of  the  grain  produced  on  the  Maryland  soil.  The  data  shows  no  regu- 
larity in  the  nitrogen  content  and  no  relation  between  the  amount  of 
that  element  in  the  seed  and  in  the  soil. 

With  the  exception  of  the  wheat  grown  on  Maryland  soil  the  amount 
of  ash  in  the  grain  is  fairly  uniform.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  content  of  the  grain  grown  on  Maryland 
soil  during  both  seasons  was  highest,  and  with  one  exception,  namely,  the 
wheat  grown  on  California  soil,  the  sulphuric  acid  content  was  the 
highest  and  the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  content  of  the  Maryland  soil 
the  lowest  of  the  three  soils.  The  lime-magnesia  ratio  of  the  Maryland 
soil  is  as  1 :  16,  and  it  may  be  that  this  large  amount  of  magnesium  is 
responsible  for  the  assimilation  of  the  other  constituents  to  a  greater 
degree. 

The  ash  and  nitrogen  content  of  the  grain  grown  on  both  plots  of 
California  soil  are  practically  the  same,  but  the  variation  occurring  in 
the  other  constituents  is  almost  as  great  as  that  occurring  in  the  grain 
produced  on  the  other  soils.  This  indicates  that  a  disturbance  of  the 
soil  to  a  depth  lower  than  the  ordinary  depth  of  cultivation  has  a  marked 
effect  on  the  assimilation  by  the  plant  of  the  mineral  elements  contained 
therein.  With  such  a  variation  occurring  in  the  mineral  constituents 
of  the  grain  grown  on  the  same  soil,  it  would  be  unsafe  to  assume  that 
the  amount  of  food  ingredients  assimilated  by  the  plant  is  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  available  materials  present  in  the  soil. 

The  lime  content  of  the  Kansas  soil  was  highest  and  that  substance 
was  present  in  a  greater  quantity  in  the  grain  grown  on  that  soil.  The 
ratio  of  phosphoric  acid  to  potash  is  higher  in  the  crop  than  in  the  soil. 
The  same  fad  is  also  true  of  the  nitrogen-phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen- 
potash  pal  io8. 


BULLETIN  216]      FACTORS  INFLUENCING  WHEAT  COMPOSITION.  571 


PHYSICAL   APPEARANCE   OF   GRAIN. 

A  very  notable  difference  occurs  in  the  appearance  of  the  grain. 
During  the  first  season  the  grain  grown  on  both  plats  of  California  soil, 
the  check  plat  and  the  disturbed  soil  plat,  was  practically  the  same,  well 
formed,  plump  kernels  of  a  typical  amber.  Very  few  starchy  kernels 
were  noticed  in  either  of  the  lots.  The  individual  kernels  were  some- 
what larger  in  the  grain  produced  on  the  check  plat,  285  kernels  weigh- 
ing 10  grams,  as  against  303  kernels  from  the  disturbed  soil  plat.  The 
seed  produced  on  the  Maryland  soil  was  pinched,  the  grains  were  much 
smaller  than  those  mentioned  above,  356  weighing  10  grams.  A  few 
more  starchy  grains  were  observed,  although  the  percentage  was  below 
5  per  cent. 

The  results  of  the  second  season  showed  more  starchy  berries  (as  high 
as  8  per  cent)  in  the  seed  grown  on  the  check  plat  than  that  grown  on 
the  other  California  soil  plat.  And,  as  in  the  previous  season,  the 
individual  kernels  were  larger,  347  grains  weighing  10  grams  as  com- 
pared with  374  grains.  The  seed  from  the  disturbed  plat  was  plump, 
a  typical  amber,  and  has  high  milling  qualities.  It  contained  practically 
no  starchy  grains.  Again  the  grain  on  the  Maryland  soil  was  pinched, 
the  berries  were  small,  474  weighing  10  grams,  and  practically  no 
starchy  grains  were  present.  The  seed  produced  on  the  Kansas  soil 
contained  as  high  as  60  per  cent  of  starchy  grains.  The  berries  were 
heavier  than  the  others,  300  weighing  10  grams.  The  original  Crimean 
seed  contained  no  starchy  berries,  and  335  kernels  weighed  10  grams. 

It  is  also  interesting  to  note  the  amount  of  nitrogen  present  in  the 
large  and  small  berries.  One  thousand  grains  of  the  seed  produced  the 
first  season  on  the  check  plat,  the  disturbed  plat  of  California  soil,  the 
Maryland  soil  plat,  and  the  Kansas  soil  plat  weighed  37.4,  34.8,  27.4, 
and  37.1,  respectively.  The  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  same  grain 
was  2.77,  2.85,  2.11,  and  2.06,  respectively.  Expressing  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  grams  per  1,000  kernels  we  would  get  1.04,  .99,  .58,  and  .76, 
respectively.  From  this  it  will  be  observed,  contrary  to  the  rule,  that 
the  smaller  grains  produced  on  the  Maryland  soil  contained  much  less 
nitrogen  than  the  larger  grains.  One  thousand  grains  of  the  seed  growTi 
on  the  same  plats  the  following  season  weighed  28.6,  29.6,  22.6,  and  36.1 
grams,  respectively.  The  percentage  of  nitrogen  was  2.48,  2.33,  3.02,  and 
1.91,  respectively;  or  again  representing  this  as  grams  of  nitrogen  per 
1,000  kernels  it  would  be  .71,  .69,  .68,  .69,  respectively.  It  is  clearly 
seen  in  this  case  that  the  different  seeds,  although  varying  considerably 
in  size,  contain  practically  the  same  quantity  of  nitrogen.  The  weight 
of  the  different  constituents  in  1,000  kernels  is  summarized  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


572 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


TABLE  XII. 

Weight  in  grams  per  1,000  kernels. 

Season  1908-1909. 

Plot. 

A 

2,  « 

»  2 

CD    c* 
f  O 

1     o 
1      o 
1      o 

o 

:3b 

TO    | 
*           « 

o  J* 

7§ 

O 

O    O    S 
O 

'   <=2 
j   §* 

o 

12  3 

•is 

o  <-► 

»    CO 

7   ET 

Grams    sulphuric 
acid  per   1,000 
kernels    

o 

|i 

I1 

h 

Check     

37.38 
34.77 
27.42 
37.1 

1.04 

.99 

.58 
.76 

.32 
.28 
.33 
.29 

.21 
.18 
.18 
.20 

.31 
.26 
.17 
.20 

.025 

California 

.039 

Maryland 

.041 

Kansas _      

.058 

Season  1909-1910. 

Check 

29.71 
28.73 
22.69 
36.11 

.71 
.70 
.69 
.69 

.25 
.23 
.23 
.21 

.17 
.17 
.16 

.20 

.26 
.20 
.22 
.22 

.026 

California _  _ 

.050 

Maryland 

.025 

Kansas 

.071 

Conclusions. — It  must  be  said  that  the  results  so  far  obtained  do  not 
shed  as  much  light  upon  the  primary  question  as  to  the  influence  of  the 
soil  nitrogen  upon  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  wheat  as  could  be  desired, 
possibly  on  account  of  the  short  duration  of  the  experiment.  It  is 
evident,  however,  that  in  neither  of  the  series  of  trials  has  the  grain 
carrying  the  larger  nitrogen  content  been  obtained  from  the  soil  plat 
having  the  heaviest  total  nitrogen  content.  In  the  light  of  the  present 
data  it  seems  quite  certain  that  the  soil  nitrogen  content  has  very  little, 
if  any,  direct  influence  upon  the  nitrogen  content  of  grain  grown  upon 
such  soil,  and  that  some  climatic  factor  is  sufficient  to  entirely  over- 
shadow the  soil  factor.  This  is  entirely  in  harmony  with  the  work  of 
Dr.  Le  Clerc  previously  reviewed,  and  also  with  the  well  known  wide 
fluctuation  of  the  nitrogen  content  of  wheat  from  season  to  season, 
although  the  grain  be  grown  upon  the  same  soil.  It  may  be  that  certain 
physical  factors,  enabling  the  soil  to  hold  moisture  better  at  certain 
periods  of  the  plant's  growth  are  responsible  for  the  difference,  but  of 
this  we  have  no  data  so  far  as  these  plats  are  concerned. 

The  results  also  show  that  a  chemical  analysis  of  a  soil  by  the  ten-hour 
hydrochloric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.115)  digestion  method  reveals  no  definite 
relation  between  the  chemical  composition  of  the  soil  and  the  crop. 

Further,  it  appears  that  the  nitrogen  content  of  an  original  seed  when 
grown  elsewhere  than  in  a  climate  within  which  it  has  been  acclimated, 
has  little  or  no  influence  upon  its  progeny,  and  that  even  though  it  be 
acclimated  still  some  seasonal  climatic  factor  is  sufficient  to  either  lower 
the  nitrogen  content  of  a  high-gluten  wheat  or  raise  the  nitrogen  content 
of  a  low-gluten  original. 


ADDENDA. 

Since  the  preparation  of  the  previous  matter,  analyses  have  been  made 
of  the  product  of  the  1911  crop  from  the  triangular  soil  exchange  plats. 
For  the  season  of  1911,  the  original  for  each  of  the  plats  and  the  general 
check  consisted  of  the  seed  produced  on  the  same  plat  the  preceding 
season. 

The  results  are  stated  below : 

TABLE  XIII. 
Showing  analyses  of  wheats  from  triangular  soil  exchange  plats  1911.     Interior  plants. 


Check. 


Orig- 
inal. 


1911 
crop. 


California. 


Orig- 
inal. 


1911 
crop. 


Kansas. 


Orig- 
inal. 


1911 
crop. 


Maryland. 


Orig- 
inal 


1911 
crop. 


Total  protein  

Ash  

Alcohol— Soluble  nitrogen 

Salt— Soluble  nitrogen 

Percentage  typical  kernels 

Percentage  starchy  kernels. __ 
Kernels  in  10  grains 


13.45 

2.15 

.91 

.51 

90.40 

.6 

374 


12.04 

1.60 
.93 
.50 

88.80 
11.2 
261 


14.27 

2.11 

1.01 

.54 

100.00 


374 


10.56 

1.88 
.76 
.45 
50.8 
49.2 
289 


11.23 

1.85 
.76 
.46 
64.7 
35.3 
204 


9.61 

1.76 
.70 
.47 
46.0 
54.0 
265 


17.44 

2.19 
1.19 

.57 
100.00 


474 


13.20 

1.78 

.80 

.50 

100.00 


425 


TABLE  XIV. 
Showing  analyses  of  wheats  from  triangular  soil  exchange  plats  1911.     Exterior  plants. 


Check. 


Orig- 
inal. 


1911 
crop. 


California. 


Kansas. 


Orig- 
inal. 


1911       Orig- 
crop.        inal. 


1911 
crop. 


Maryland. 


Orig-         1911 
inal.        crop. 


Total  protein  

Ash  

Alcohol— Soluble  nitrogen  ___ 

Salt— Soluble  nitrogen   

Percentage  typical  kernels... 
Percentage  starchy  kernels.. 
Kernels  in  10  grams 


13.45 

2.15 

.91 

.51 

90.4 

.6 

347 


12.04 

1.60 
.93 
.50 
88.8 
11.2 
261 


14.27 

2.11 

1.01 

.54 

100.00 


374 


11.60 

1.89 
.82 
.51 
61.3 
38.7 
289 


11.23 

1.85 
.76 
.46 
64.7 
35.3 
204 


12.12 

1.80 
.90 
.56 
82.4 
17.6 
269 


17.44 

2.19 

1.19 

.57 

100.00 


474 


12.52 

1.72 
.72 
.57 
96.8 
3.2 


As  in  the  previous  two  seasons,  the  grain  produced  on  the  Maryland 
soil  was  pinched  and  the  kernels  were  small,  which  fact  again  renders 
this  product  not  comparable  with  the  others. 


Showing  relative  yield  from  the  triangular  soil  exchange  plats  1911. 


The  ash  content  of  the  produce  of  the  check  plat  is  markedly  low 
when  compared  with  the  others,  which  are  very  uniform  in  ash  content. 
The  selected  interior  product  of  each  of  the  California  and  Kansas  plats 
shows  a  marked  uniformity  in  the  nitrogen  and  ash  content  as  well  as  in 
the  number  of  kernels  in  10  grams,  and  the  percentage  of  starchy  and 
typical  kernels.  They  show,  however,  less  nitrogen  than  the  grain  from 
the  check  plat. 

On  comparing  the  chemical  characteristics  of  the  exterior  plants  it 
will  be  noticed  that  the  figures  in  all  of  the  columns  for  the  grain  from 
the  check  and  Kansas  plats  agree  tolerably  well. 

The  most  striking  point  brought  out  by  these  last  figures,  is  the  dif- 
ference in  composition  and  appearance  of  the  grain  produced  on  the 
same  soil,  viz. :  the  check  plat  and  the  other  California  soil  plat.  There 
is  a  greater  difference  between  these  two  products  than  exists  between 
the  others  or  between  these  and  the  others.  This  difference,  particularly 
with  respect  to  the  nitrogen,  is  not  nearly  so  great,  however,  as  that 
brought  out  by  Le  Clerc  (loc.  cit.)  from  his  experiments  in  which  both 
soil  and  climate  were  variable  factors.  It  does,  however,  indicate  that 
some  other  factors  pertinent  to  the  physical  or  biological  conditions  of 
the  soil  play  an  important  role  since  we  have,  in  our  own  experiment, 
only  one  variable  factor,  viz. :  the  soil.  Moreover,  the  slight  variations 
occurring  in  the  chemical  characteristics  in  these  experiments,  being 
considerably  less  than  those  observed  by  Le  Clerc,  adds  strongly  to  the 
belief  that  the  climatic  factor  is  the  chief  one  in  producing  changes  in 
the  chemical  composition  of  wheat. 


STATION     PUBLICATIONS    AVAILABLE     FOR     DISTRIBUTION. 

REPORTS. 

1896.  Report  of  the  Viticultural  Work  during  the  seasons  1887-93,  with  data  regard- 

ing the  Vintages  of  1894-95. 

1897.  Resistant  Vines,  their  Selection,  Adaptation,  and  Grafting.     Appendix  to  Viti- 

cultural Report  for  1896. 

1902.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1898-1901. 

1903.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1901-03. 

1904.  Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1903-04. 


BULLETINS. 


Reprint.     Endurance  of  Drought  in  Soils  of 

the  Arid  Region. 
No.   128.  Nature,  Value,  and  Utilization  of 

Alkali  Lands,  and  Tolerance  of 

Alkali.      (Revised  and  Reprint, 

1905.) 
133.   Tolerance    of    Alkali    by   Various 

cultures. 
14  7.   Culture  Work  of  the  Sub-stations. 
149.  California  Sugar  Industry. 

151.  Arsenical  Insecticides. 
153.   Spraying  with  Distillates. 

159.  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  Fer- 
mentation. 

1G2.  Commercial  Fertilizers.  (Dec.  1, 
1904.) 

165.  Asparagus  and  Asparagus  Rust 
in  California. 

167.  Manufacture    of    Dry    \vines    in 

Hot  Countries. 

168.  Observations  on  Some  Vine  Dis- 

eases in  Sonoma  County. 

169.  Tolerance  of  the  Sugar  Beet  for 

Alkali. 

170.  Studies  in  Grasshopper  Control. 

171.  Commercial     Fertilizers.       (June 

30,  1905.) 

172.  Further  Experience  in  Asparagus 

Rust  Control. 
174.   A  New  Wine-cooling  Machine. 
176.   Sugar  Beets  in  the   San  Joaquin 

Valley. 
17  7.   A    New    Method    of    Making   Dry 

Red  Wine. 

178.  Mosquito  Control. 

179.  Commercial    Fertilizers.       (June, 

1906.) 

180.  Resistant  Vineyards. 

181.  The  Selection  of  Seed- Wheat. 

15 2.  Analysis     of     Paris     Green     and 

Lead    Arsenic.       Proposed    In- 
secticide Law. 

183.  The  California  Tussock-moth. 

184.  Report   of  the   Plant   Pathologist 

to  July  1,  1906. 

185.  Peport    of    Progress     in     Cereal 

Investigations. 

186.  The  Oidium  of  the  Vine. 


No.   187. 

188. 

189. 

190. 
191. 
192. 

193. 

194. 
195. 
197. 


198. 
199. 
200. 

201. 

202. 

203. 

204. 

205. 

206. 

207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 

211. 

212. 
213. 
214. 
215. 


Commercial  Fertilizers.  (January, 
1907.) 

Lining  of  Ditches  and  Reservoirs 
to  Prevent  Seepage  and  Losses. 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  (June, 
1907.) 

The  Brown  Rot  of  the  Lemon. 

California  Peach  Blight. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Vine  in 
California. 

The  Best  Wine  Grapes  for  Cali- 
fornia ;  Pruning  Young  Vines  ; 
Pruning  the  Sultanina. 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  (Dec, 
1907.) 

The  California  Grape  Root- 
Worm. 

Grape  Culture  in  California ; 
Improved  Methods  of  Wine- 
making  ;  Yeast  from  California 
Grapes. 

The  Grape  Leaf-Hopper. 

Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

Gum  Diseases  of  Citrus  Trees  in 
California. 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  (June, 
1908.) 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  (Decem- 
ber,  1908.) 

Report  of  the  Plant  Pathologist 
to  July  1,   1909. 

The  Dairy  Cow's  Record  and  the 
Stable. 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  (Decem- 
ber,   1909.) 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  (June, 
1910.) 

The  Control  of  the  Argentine  Ant. 

The  Late  Blight  of  Celery. 

The  Cream  Supply. 

Imperial  Valley  Settlers'  Crop 
Manual. 

How  to  Increase  the  Yield  of 
Wheat  in  California. 

California  .White  Wheats. 

The    Principles    of   Wine-making. 

Citrus  Fruit  Insects. 

The  House  Fly  in  Its  Relation  to 
Public  Health. 


CIRCULARS. 


No.      1.  Texas  Fever. 

5.  Contagious  Abortion  in  Cows. 
7.  Remedies  for  Insects. 
9.  Asparagus  Rust. 

11.  Fumigation  Practice. 

12.  Silk   Culture. 

15.  Recent    Problems    in    Agriculture. 
What  a  University  Farm  is  For. 
19.  Disinfection  of  Stables. 

29.  Preliminary    Announcement    Con- 

cerning Instruction  in  Practical 
Agriculture  upon  the  University 
Farm,  Davis,  Cal. 

30.  White   Fly  in   California. 

32.  White   Fly   Eradication. 

33.  Packing    Prunes    in    Cans.      Cane 

Sugar  vs.  Beet  Sugar. 

36.  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  for  Con- 
sumers. 

39.  Instruction  in  Practical  Agricul- 
ture at  the  University  Farm. 

46.  Suggestions  for   Garden  Work   in 

California  Schools. 

47.  Agriculture  in  the  High  Schools. 


No.   48.   Butter  Scoring  Contest,  1909. 

50.  Fumigating   Scheduling. 

51.  University  Farm  School. 

53.  Announcement  of  Farmers'    Short 

Courses  for   1910. 

54.  Some     Creamery     Problems     and 

Tests. 

55.  Farmers'  Institutes  and  University 

Extension  in  Agriculture. 

58.  Experiments  with  Plants  and  Soils 

in     Laboratory,     Garden,     and 
Field. 

59.  Tree      Growing      in      the      Public 

Schools. 

60.  Butter  Scoring  Contest,   1910. 

61.  University  Farm  School. 

62.  The  School  Garden  in  the  Course 

of  Study. 

63.  How     to     Make     an     Observation 

Hive. 

64.  Announcement   of  Farmers'    Short 

Courses   for    1911. 

65.  California   Insecticide   Law. 

66.  Insecticides  and  Insect  Control. 


